Toxics

17 pages, 1128 KB

Open AccessArticle

Circadian Phase Modulates Embryonic Susceptibility to Bisphenol A-Induced ASD-Related Behavioral Alterations via nr1d1

by Ying Wu, Jianjun Liu, Pinyi Chen, Xinwei Wang, Yuting Wang, Xiaoyao Song and Jie Zhang

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060485 - 31 May 2026

Abstract

Emerging evidence links environmental exposures and circadian dysregulation to autism spectrum disorder (ASD), yet whether circadian phase modulates vulnerability to developmental toxicants remains unclear. Here, we investigated whether embryonic bisphenol A (BPA) exposure induces circadian phase-dependent ASD-related behavioral alterations via disruption of nr1d1 [...] Read more.

Emerging evidence links environmental exposures and circadian dysregulation to autism spectrum disorder (ASD), yet whether circadian phase modulates vulnerability to developmental toxicants remains unclear. Here, we investigated whether embryonic bisphenol A (BPA) exposure induces circadian phase-dependent ASD-related behavioral alterations via disruption of nr1d1 rhythmicity in zebrafish. In control larvae, nr1d1 exhibited significant circadian oscillation, whereas BPA exposure reduced expression levels and dampened oscillation amplitude. Two-way ANOVA revealed significant treatment × phase interactions in nr1d1 expression. Pharmacological activation of Nr1d1 partially restored rhythmic expression. Behavioral assessments conducted at defined circadian phases demonstrated a significant treatment × phase interaction in social preference. BPA-exposed larvae exhibited reduced social preference selectively at circadian time 15 (CT15), corresponding to the trough phase of nr1d1 expression, whereas no differences were observed at circadian time 3 (CT3). In contrast, tactile hyper-responsiveness showed a significant treatment effect but no phase interaction. BPA exposure also induced phase-dependent alterations in ASD-related genes, including α-nrxn2a and β-nrxn3a, with significant treatment × phase interactions. At the molecular level, BPA increased reactive oxygen species, impaired antioxidant defense, enhanced neuroinflammatory responses, and disrupted excitatory–inhibitory balance. Several of these endpoints exhibited phase-dependent modulation and were partially attenuated by Nr1d1 activation. These findings indicate that circadian phase modulates embryonic susceptibility to BPA-induced ASD-related behavioral and molecular alterations. Disruption of nr1d1 rhythmicity may contribute to time-of-day-specific neurodevelopmental vulnerability following environmental exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Neuroexposome: Integrating Exposures with Physiology to Understand Brain Health and Disease)

12 pages, 2137 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fe-C Micro-Electrolysis of HMX: Performance Optimization, Degradation Mechanisms, and Toxicity Evolution Revealed by Toxicogenomics-Based Assay

by Xin Jiang, Dongqi Wang, Guodong Chai, Guangxiang Duan, Haoting Xiong, Yishi Qian, Lin Xie, Yi Xiao, Heyun Yang, Mingrui Fan, Jiake Li, Yishan Lin, Xiaoliang Li and Yuling Liu

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060484 - 31 May 2026

Abstract

This study evaluated the degradation of 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane (HMX) in simulated wastewater using an iron-carbon (Fe-C) micro-electrolysis system. The treatment efficiency was systematically evaluated under varying initial pH, Fe dosage, and Fe/C mass ratios. Under the optimized operating conditions (initial pH of 4, Fe [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the degradation of 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane (HMX) in simulated wastewater using an iron-carbon (Fe-C) micro-electrolysis system. The treatment efficiency was systematically evaluated under varying initial pH, Fe dosage, and Fe/C mass ratios. Under the optimized operating conditions (initial pH of 4, Fe dosage of 70 g/L, and an Fe/C mass rat of 1:1), the system achieved a maximum HMX removal efficiency of 98.4%. Kinetic analysis indicated that the degradation process conformed to pseudo-first-order kinetics. Mechanistically, HMX removal was attributed to interfacial adsorption and co-precipitation via in situ generated Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺ hydroxides, alongside reductive transformation mediated by Fe, Fe²⁺, and nascent hydrogen ([H]) evolved during the micro-electrolysis process. To assess the molecular toxicity evolution of the treated wastewater, a toxicogenomic assay was deployed to evaluate the molecular toxicity evolution of the treated wastewater matrix. The transcriptomic profiling revealed that DNA damage and oxidative stress were the predominant cellular stress responses induced by the wastewater. While the total toxic effect transcript index (TELI_total) exhibited a transient initial increase before steadily declining, the overall toxic potency remained within a relatively stable range throughout the treatment cycle. Ultimately, this study provides critical insights into process optimization and pathway elucidation, demonstrating that Fe-C micro-electrolysis is a promising and scalable pretreatment technology for the remediation of energetic compound-laden industrial effluents. Full article

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29 pages, 7090 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Potentially Toxic Elements in Roadside Agricultural Soils Using Pollution Indices and Remediation Potential of Manure and Attapulgite in Wheat Cultivation

by Apostolia Argiri, Aikaterini Molla, Miltiadis Tziouvalekas and Christina Emmanouil

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060483 - 31 May 2026

Abstract

Soil near urban areas may be burdened with numerous environmental pollutants including potentially toxic elements (PTEs). In this context, samples near the highway infrastructure in Larissa, Central Greece were examined for pseudo-total concentrations of Cr, Cu, Zn, Pb and Ni, and enrichment, ecological [...] Read more.

Soil near urban areas may be burdened with numerous environmental pollutants including potentially toxic elements (PTEs). In this context, samples near the highway infrastructure in Larissa, Central Greece were examined for pseudo-total concentrations of Cr, Cu, Zn, Pb and Ni, and enrichment, ecological risk and human risk indices were calculated. Co-variation structure between PTEs and key soil properties was assessed through Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Screening for the pollution status of this area would quantify the possible risk, and therefore whether our subsequent rehabilitation trials would be of use. In this context, the most polluted sample was chosen to undergo a variety of remediation alternatives in a pot experiment, incorporating wheat and manure–attapulgite mixtures. Results showed enrichment of soil mainly with Ni, a low probability (9%) of risk exceedance for children for non-carcinogenic health effects and strong associations between the PTEs, indicating common sources. The greenhouse experiments showed that the application of manure–attapulgite reduced PTE concentrations in soil and wheat plant, with the greatest decrease observed for Pb, Cr and Ni. BCF values indicated strong accumulation of Ni (BCF > 1), while Cr and Cu showed limited uptake. Coefficient of contamination level (CCL) values (<1) for Cr and Cu confirmed reduced plant uptake, whereas Ni, Pb and Zn remained above 1. Taken together, the research shows that the fields chosen here are subjected to significant PTE input from lithogenic and anthropogenic sources, which may even become dangerous for sensitive sub-populations. Experimental cultivation of wheat shows that the combined amendments effectively reduced metal bioavailability and soil-to-plant transfer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Soil Amendments for the Immobilization of Potentially Toxic Elements)

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23 pages, 4053 KB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Exposure and Long-Term Mortality After Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting: A Multicenter Cohort Study Beyond Traditional Risk Factors

by Tomasz Urbanowicz, Sleiman Sebastian Aboul-Hassan, Krzysztof Skotak, Maria Luszczyn, Łukasz Moskal, Jakub Bratkowski, Mariusz Kowalewski, Jarosław Bartkowski, Bartłomiej Perek, Mirosław Wilczyński, Krzysztof J. Filipiak, Krzysztof Bartuś, Romuald Cichoń and Marek Jemielity

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060482 - 31 May 2026

Abstract

Background: Ambient air pollution is an established cardiovascular risk factor; however, its impact on long-term outcomes after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) remains insufficiently defined. We aimed to evaluate whether chronic exposure to air pollutants may influence long-term mortality following surgical revascularization. Methods: [...] Read more.

Background: Ambient air pollution is an established cardiovascular risk factor; however, its impact on long-term outcomes after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) remains insufficiently defined. We aimed to evaluate whether chronic exposure to air pollutants may influence long-term mortality following surgical revascularization. Methods: In this multicenter retrospective cohort study, 1033 consecutive patients undergoing CABG with BIMA (bilateral internal mammary arteries) grafting were analyzed with a median follow-up of 8.1 years. Individual exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), particulate matter ≤10 μm (PM₁₀), and ≤2.5 μm (PM_2.5) was estimated based on residential data. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards models were used to assess associations with long-term mortality. Model performance was evaluated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, while incremental prognostic value was quantified using net reclassification improvement (NRI) and integrated discrimination improvement (IDI). Kaplan–Meier analyses were performed using data-driven thresholds and model-based risk stratification. Results: During follow-up, 220 deaths (21.1%) occurred. In multivariable analysis, both NO₂ and PM₁₀ were associated with increased mortality (NO₂: HR 2.70 per 10 μg/m³, 95% CI 2.03–3.59; PM₁₀: HR 2.73 per 10 μg/m³, 95% CI 1.94–3.83; both p < 0.001), whereas PM_2.5 was not significant. The clinical model demonstrated moderate discrimination (AUC 0.73), which improved significantly after inclusion of pollution variables (AUC 0.84; ΔAUC 0.11). Reclassification analysis showed substantial improvement (NRI 0.42, p < 0.001; IDI 0.11, p < 0.001). Kaplan–Meier analysis confirmed enhanced risk stratification, with a hazard ratio of 2.70 for the clinical model and 7.02 for the combined clinical and pollution model (both p < 0.001). Conclusions: In this retrospective cohort of patients undergoing CABG with BIMA grafting, higher long-term residential exposure to NO₂ and PM₁₀ was associated with greater all-cause mortality after adjustment for measured clinical and procedural factors. These findings support further investigation of environmental exposure as a prognostic marker in surgically treated coronary disease, pending external validation and more granular control for contextual confounding. These findings suggest that environmental exposure may represent a relevant component of long-term risk stratification, although confirmation in large-volume cohorts is required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Airway Exposure to Pollution from Ambient Particulate Matter (PM) and Health Effects)

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18 pages, 1363 KB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Toxicant Exposure and Height Among Children and Adolescents

by Junyu Lu, Jianhui Guo, Yuwan Li, Di Shi, Yaqi Wang, Xinyao Lian, Shuyue Li, Xindou Chen, Shaodan Huang, Jing Guo, Qi Su, Xiaoheng Li and Jing Li

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060481 - 30 May 2026

Abstract

Environmental toxicants may affect the height of children and adolescents. However, studies on the toxicological effects based on extensive internal exposure omics are still lacking. This study aimed to identify key toxicants associated with height and assess the mediating role of sex steroid [...] Read more.

Environmental toxicants may affect the height of children and adolescents. However, studies on the toxicological effects based on extensive internal exposure omics are still lacking. This study aimed to identify key toxicants associated with height and assess the mediating role of sex steroid hormones. To this end 1660 participants aged 6–19 years from subsample A in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were included. Exposome was characterized by 58 toxicants within 12 families. After assessment by the exposome-wide association analysis and mixture models, we identified 17 toxicants inversely associated with height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ), predominantly metals and volatile organic compound (VOC) metabolites. Tin exhibited the strongest inverse association (β = −0.261), followed by lead (β = −0.230). The primary contributors to reduced height included tin, lead, the VOC metabolite 2-ATCA, ethylene oxide, and nitrate. Notably, males and younger children were the more susceptible subgroups. Furthermore, mediation analysis revealed that sex steroid hormones, particularly total testosterone and estradiol, mediated 8% to 37% of the associations. These findings suggest that endocrine-related pathways may link toxicant exposure to impaired linear growth, highlighting the necessity of reducing exposure during childhood. Full article

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20 pages, 2593 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanistic Insights into the Photocatalytic Degradation of Chlorophenols in Aqueous Systems via Nonlinear Kinetic Modeling

by Liliana Bobirică, Cristina Orbeci, Giovanina-Iuliana Ionică and Constantin Bobirică

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060480 - 30 May 2026

Abstract

Chlorophenols (CPs), such as 4-chlorophenol (4-CP) and 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), are persistent and toxic organic pollutants commonly found in industrial effluents. This study investigates their photocatalytic degradation using a TiO₂-based heterogeneous catalyst under UV irradiation, in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. The [...] Read more.

Chlorophenols (CPs), such as 4-chlorophenol (4-CP) and 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), are persistent and toxic organic pollutants commonly found in industrial effluents. This study investigates their photocatalytic degradation using a TiO₂-based heterogeneous catalyst under UV irradiation, in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. The degradation kinetics were analyzed using both pseudo-first order and nonlinear Langmuir–Hinshelwood (L–H) models, accounting for competitive adsorption and successive oxidation of intermediates. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) identified key intermediates, including hydroquinone, catechol, chlorocatechols, and benzoquinone. Nonlinear kinetic modeling of coupled differential equations accurately reproduced the temporal profiles of both the parent compounds and their intermediates, providing mechanistic insights into multi-step hydroxylation, dechlorination, and oxidation processes. The results demonstrate that photocatalytic oxidation effectively mineralizes chlorophenols within 500–600 min, and the developed kinetic model offers a predictive tool for optimizing photocatalytic remediation strategies for chlorinated aromatic pollutants. The novelty of this study lies in the development of a nonlinear Langmuir–Hinshelwood kinetic model integrating experimentally identified degradation intermediates, competitive adsorption phenomena, and parallel photocatalytic reaction pathways for both 4-chlorophenol and 2,4-dichlorophenol oxidation systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Degradation and Remediation of Environmental Pollutants)

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22 pages, 4304 KB

Open AccessArticle

Extractable Cr(VI) Hotspots in the Defor Petrila Tailings Dump, Romania: A Redox-Based Hazard Screening Approach

by Mădălina F. Ioniță, Emilia C. Dunca, Sorin M. Radu and Sabin I. Irimie

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060479 - 30 May 2026

Abstract

Chromium-related hazard in mine wastes depends strongly on oxidation state, with hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] representing the most mobile and toxicologically relevant chromium form. Abandoned tailings dumps can develop sharp pH and redox gradients that favour either Cr(VI) persistence or attenuation, yet field-based evidence [...] Read more.

Chromium-related hazard in mine wastes depends strongly on oxidation state, with hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] representing the most mobile and toxicologically relevant chromium form. Abandoned tailings dumps can develop sharp pH and redox gradients that favour either Cr(VI) persistence or attenuation, yet field-based evidence from Eastern European post-mining sites remains limited. This study evaluates the Defor Petrila tailings dump, Jiu Valley, Romania, as a first-tier environmental hazard-screening case study based on repeated monitoring performed during 2022–2024 at twelve permanent sampling points and two local operational control samples. Field pH and redox potential (Eh), moisture, organic matter, acid-extractable Mn and Fe, pseudo-total Cr, and method-defined extractable Cr(VI) were determined. Here, pseudo-total Cr refers to chromium released by microwave-assisted acid digestion and does not represent complete decomposition of the silicate matrix, while extractable Cr(VI) refers to the operationally defined fraction obtained by alkaline extraction. In addition, a conservative redox-based prioritisation score (R_redox) was applied only as an internal ranking layer to identify sectors where Cr(VI) is more likely to persist. The upper dump sector (P1–P4) was alkaline (pH 7.5–8.2), strongly oxidising (+280 to +412 mV), and enriched in Mn and Fe, whereas the lower sector (P9–P12) was wetter, slightly acidic to near-neutral, and reducing (−59 to −10 mV). Extractable Cr(VI) reached 18.7 mg kg⁻¹ at P2 in 2024, while both control samples remained below the quantification limit. Exploratory repeated-site statistics, sector-based comparison, and correlation analysis supported a coherent association between Eh, Mn enrichment, and extractable Cr(VI), but these relationships are interpreted as spatially structured screening evidence rather than proof of a single mineralogical oxidation pathway. No direct exposure, leachability, bioaccessibility, ecotoxicity, airborne dust, water, vegetation, or biomonitoring measurements were included; therefore, the results identify priority zones for confirmatory toxicological and exposure-based assessment, not receptor-specific risk estimates. This study demonstrates that combining chromium speciation with field redox zonation can support conservative monitoring prioritisation at abandoned mine-waste sites where the toxic form of chromium may remain environmentally active. Full article

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19 pages, 523 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exposure to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and the Risk of Sarcopenia: The Mediating Role of Serum Albumin

by Mingkun Sun, Chu Chu, Kun Zhao, Zhengmin (Min) Qian, Mario Schootman, Stephen Edward McMillin, Jiaxiang Dong, Wenwen Bao, Muhammad Amjad, Haseeb Tufail Moryani, Yang Zhou, Yan Yang and Peipei Wang

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060478 - 29 May 2026

Abstract

Widespread exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is a growing public health concern, but its link to muscle damage remains largely unexplored. As PFAS exposure is associated with liver dysfunction, which is an established risk factor for muscle damage, we examined their [...] Read more.

Widespread exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is a growing public health concern, but its link to muscle damage remains largely unexplored. As PFAS exposure is associated with liver dysfunction, which is an established risk factor for muscle damage, we examined their associations and potential mediating pathways. A total of 1261 participants were recruited from Guangdong province, China, from November 2018 to August 2019 and examined for muscle mass, strength, serum PFAS levels, and biomarkers of liver function. The key results demonstrated significant positive associations between serum PFAS exposure and sarcopenia risk. Specifically, a per ln ng/mL increase in linear perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), branch PFOS, and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was associated with adjusted odds ratios of 2.32 (95% CI: 1.77 to 3.00), 2.18 (95% CI: 1.67 to 2.90) and 3.01 (95% CI: 1.96 to 4.70), respectively. Analysis of PFAS mixtures via the BKMR model revealed a linear dose–response relationship of sarcopenia, with PFOS and PFOA being the primary contributor. Importantly, mediation analyses showed that liver function biomarkers served as significant mediators of the PFAS–sarcopenia association. Notably, liver synthesis function markers (albumin and globin) mediated a substantial proportion of the association, ranging from 3.48% to 82.42%, whereas liver injury markers (aspartate aminotransferase and gamma-glutamyl transferase) accounted for only 1.93–15.44%. This study underscores the need to be aware of the increased risk of muscle damage associated with PFAS exposure, which may primarily operate through liver function abnormalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Media Exposure to Emerging Contaminants and Health Effects Across Physiological Systems: Exposure Pathways, Risk Assessment and Public Health Implications)

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19 pages, 2853 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Potential Effects of F-53B on Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Through Network Toxicology, Molecular Docking, and In Vitro Validation

by Lingling Xu, Yujie Ma, Zhenming Zheng, Fei Zou and Wenjun Li

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060477 - 29 May 2026

Abstract

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a fatal vascular disorder with poor prognosis. 6:2 chloro-polyfluorooctane ether sulfonate (F-53B), a persistent environmental contaminant detected in humans, is known to be vasculotoxic, yet its association with PAH remains unexplored. This study aims to elucidate the mechanisms [...] Read more.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a fatal vascular disorder with poor prognosis. 6:2 chloro-polyfluorooctane ether sulfonate (F-53B), a persistent environmental contaminant detected in humans, is known to be vasculotoxic, yet its association with PAH remains unexplored. This study aims to elucidate the mechanisms linking F-53B exposure to PAH by integrating network toxicology, molecular docking and in vitro experiments. Potential F-53B targets were predicted using ChEMBL, PharmMapper, and TargetNet. PAH-related genes were compiled from GeneCards, Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM), Therapeutic Target Database (TTD), and GSE254617. We identified 42 key targets of F-53B-related PAH. Functional enrichment revealed terms such as inflammatory response and extracellular matrix. Protein–protein interaction (PPI) analysis identified five hub genes: CCL2, CXCL8, CCL5, CCR2, and CCL11. Molecular docking confirmed strong binding between F-53B and these core targets, with CCR2 showing the strongest affinity (−10 kcal/mol). Molecular dynamics simulations further verified stable binding to CCR2. In vitro experiments demonstrated that F-53B activated the CCL2/CCR2 axis and induced IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 in HUVECs and RAW264.7 cells. This study reveals that F-53B is linked to PAH through dysregulation of chemokine signaling networks and induction of inflammatory cytokines. These findings suggest F-53B as a potential environmental risk factor for PAH and pinpoint potential targets for intervention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Environmental Pollutants and Their Impact on Human Health)

13 pages, 1199 KB

Open AccessArticle

Field Application of Layered Double Hydroxides to Reduce Cd Bioavailability and Uptake in Artemisia argyi Grown in Severely Contaminated Soil

by Wei Qiu, Yujuan Huang, Chen Tu, Shuai Yang, Yi Wang, Xia Zhu and Yongming Luo

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060476 - 29 May 2026

Abstract

Non-food cropping provides a practical strategy for the safe utilization of severely cadmium (Cd)-contaminated farmland. In this study, a field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of layered double hydroxides (LDHs) in reducing Cd transfer from soil to Artemisia argyi, a [...] Read more.

Non-food cropping provides a practical strategy for the safe utilization of severely cadmium (Cd)-contaminated farmland. In this study, a field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of layered double hydroxides (LDHs) in reducing Cd transfer from soil to Artemisia argyi, a plant used for non-food applications, and to estimate Cd release potential during moxa burning. Our results demonstrated that the application of LDHs increased soil pH and decreased the extractable Cd concentration based on CaCl₂ extraction, suggesting a reduction in Cd bioavailability. Furthermore, BCR fractionation analysis indicated a shift of Cd from more active to more stable forms, further supporting the reduction in Cd bioavailability in the soil. SEM–EDS and FTIR confirmed the lamellar morphology, CaAl composition, and hydroxyl-rich functional groups of the LDH conditioner. Plant growth was not negatively affected by LDH treatment, and Cd concentrations in roots, stems, and leaves were significantly reduced. LDHs also reduced Cd levels in processed moxa and the mass-balance-based estimate of Cd release during combustion. These findings suggest that LDHs application may help reduce Cd transfer in non-food cropping systems on severely contaminated farmland. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Toxicity of Heavy Metals and Chemical Pollutants in Agricultural Soil and Plants: Ecological Risks and Remediation)

27 pages, 1506 KB

Open AccessReview

Micro- and Nanoplastics as Drivers and Modulators of Hepatotoxicity in Zebrafish (Danio rerio): Interactions with Environmental Co-Contaminants and Molecular Mechanisms

by Alexandra Szilagyi, Alexandra Jităreanu, Alina Iliuța Olărița and Carmen Solcan

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060475 - 28 May 2026

Abstract

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) have emerged as pervasive contaminants in aquatic ecosystems, raising concerns regarding their biological impacts on aquatic organisms. The liver plays a central role in metabolism, detoxification, and immune regulation, making it particularly vulnerable to MNP-induced toxicity. Importantly, MNPs also [...] Read more.

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) have emerged as pervasive contaminants in aquatic ecosystems, raising concerns regarding their biological impacts on aquatic organisms. The liver plays a central role in metabolism, detoxification, and immune regulation, making it particularly vulnerable to MNP-induced toxicity. Importantly, MNPs also function as vectors and modulators of co-occurring environmental contaminants, including heavy metals, pesticides, antibiotics, PFASs, algal toxins, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), thereby influencing contaminant bioavailability and hepatic toxicity. This narrative review synthesizes current evidence on hepatic alterations induced by micro- and nanoplastic exposure in zebrafish (Danio rerio), with emphasis on histopathological changes and underlying mechanisms. Relevant peer-reviewed studies were identified through systematic searches of Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect, covering the period 2013–2026, and screened according to predefined inclusion criteria focusing on hepatic endpoints in zebrafish exposed to micro- and nanoplastics. Across the available literature, MNPs consistently accumulate in hepatic tissue and induce structural alterations, including hepatocellular vacuolization, steatosis, inflammatory infiltration, and necrosis. Mechanistically, these pathological changes are closely linked to oxidative stress, impairment of antioxidant defense systems, reprogramming of lipid and glucose metabolism, and activation of inflammatory and regulated cell death signaling pathways. In addition, interactions with co-occurring environmental contaminants—such as heavy metals, pesticides, antibiotics, and algal toxins—frequently exacerbate hepatic injury through synergistic toxicological mechanisms. Disruption of the gut–liver axis and intestinal microbiota has also emerged as an important contributor to systemic metabolic and inflammatory responses. Overall, zebrafish studies demonstrate that the liver represents a critical target organ for MNP toxicity. Future research should prioritize environmentally realistic exposure scenarios, standardized particle characterization, and integrated multi-omics approaches to improve ecological and human health risk assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics as Dual-Origin Contaminant Vectors: Leaching, Sorption Dynamics, and Combined Biological Impacts)

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15 pages, 10488 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Influence of Food Trade on Human Exposure to Heavy Metals via Crops in China

by Bo Tang, Xuhua Miao, Jianyuan Ma, Wenxiu Liu, Qingbao Gu and Fujun Ma

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060474 - 28 May 2026

Abstract

Crops can accumulate heavy metals (HMs) from soil, leading to human exposure through dietary intake. However, the influence of interregional food trade on dietary HMs exposure remains underexplored. In this study, using data derived from existing literature, the occurrence and distribution patterns of [...] Read more.

Crops can accumulate heavy metals (HMs) from soil, leading to human exposure through dietary intake. However, the influence of interregional food trade on dietary HMs exposure remains underexplored. In this study, using data derived from existing literature, the occurrence and distribution patterns of six HMs, namely arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn), in soil and crops across China were investigated. Furthermore, the influence of food trade on human exposure to soil-derived HMs was assessed. The average total concentration of the six HMs in soil was 234.01 ± 29.54 mg/kg, while concentrations in rice and wheat were 16.06 ± 2.91 mg/kg and 22.48 ± 4.22 mg/kg, respectively. The hazard quotients (HQs) for As in rice exceeded 1 in the Central, Central Coast, South Coast, Southwest, and Northeast regions, indicating potential health risks. Interregional food trade significantly redistributed these risks. Through rice consumption, the Central and Northeast regions accounted for up to 36.78% and 45.08% of the daily intakes of As and Cd in other regions, respectively. Similarly, through wheat consumption, the Central and Southwest regions accounted for up to 51.33% and 25.97% of the daily intakes of As and Cd, respectively. This redistribution is largely attributed to the concentration of major crop production in the Central, Northeast, and Southwest regions. Overall, this study highlights the critical role of interregional food trade in modulating population health risks associated with contaminants, providing a more accurate and comprehensive assessment of dietary HMs exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Toxicity of Heavy Metals and Chemical Pollutants in Agricultural Soil and Plants: Ecological Risks and Remediation)

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22 pages, 10476 KB

Open AccessArticle

Source Apportionment and Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements in Shallow Groundwater Using an Integrated PMF-SOM Approach: A Case Study from Southern Dongting Lake, China

by Xinping Deng, Bozhi Ren, Shun Zhang, Luyuan Chen and Zhaoqi Cai

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060473 - 27 May 2026

Abstract

Shallow groundwater in the Dongting Lake area is an important resource for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use, and its quality is essential for regional sustainable development and public health. Therefore, effective protection of this resource is urgently needed. In this paper, we integrate [...] Read more.

Shallow groundwater in the Dongting Lake area is an important resource for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use, and its quality is essential for regional sustainable development and public health. Therefore, effective protection of this resource is urgently needed. In this paper, we integrate Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) and Self-Organizing Map (SOM) machine-learning algorithms to conduct an in-depth analysis of the distribution, sources, and risks of toxic elements in shallow groundwater along the southern shore of Dongting Lake. The results indicate that Fe and Mn in the groundwater of the study area are at a severe pollution level, while As is at a light pollution level. The model analysis identified four pollution sources: natural sources (Fe, Mn) accounting for 31.33%, agricultural production (Zn) for 18.96%, traffic-mining mixed source (Pb, Cu, Cd) for 32.67%, and mineral dissolution-redox driven (As) for 17.04%. The average concentrations of Fe and Mn exceeded the standard limits. Although the carcinogenic metal Cd did not pose a health risk, the health risk value of As exceeded the maximum acceptable level, which requires serious attention. The PMF model quantified four potential sources of toxic elements, while SOM was used as a complementary nonlinear clustering tool to examine the consistency of the PMF-derived source contribution patterns. The integrated PMF–SOM framework, together with spatial distribution and geochemical evidence, improved the interpretability and robustness of source identification. Full article

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16 pages, 9729 KB

Open AccessArticle

Regional Variations in Physicochemical Properties and Oil–Solid Interaction Mechanisms of Oily Sludge from Three Chinese Oilfields

by Yuwei Bao, Jiao Zhao, Yang Liu and Yimin Zhu

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060472 - 27 May 2026

Abstract

Oily sludge is one of the most challenging solid wastes generated during petroleum production and wastewater treatment, posing long-term environmental risks and demanding effective resource-recovery strategies. This study systematically investigated the physicochemical characteristics, compositional differences, and oil–solid interaction mechanisms of oily sludge (OS) [...] Read more.

Oily sludge is one of the most challenging solid wastes generated during petroleum production and wastewater treatment, posing long-term environmental risks and demanding effective resource-recovery strategies. This study systematically investigated the physicochemical characteristics, compositional differences, and oil–solid interaction mechanisms of oily sludge (OS) from three representative Chinese oilfields, Panjin, Daqing and Xinjiang, through integrated analyses of elemental composition, oil composition, X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR), Gas chromatograph (GC), and Confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM). The results revealed pronounced regional variations in oxidation degree, hydrocarbon composition, and mineralogy that critically influenced oil occurrence and removal behavior. The Panjin OS sample (PJ-OS) exhibited a high oxidation degree, enriched resins and asphaltenes, and compact film-like oil–solid structures, resulting in the lowest oil mobility and recovery potential. The Daqing OS (DQ-OS) was dominated by light saturates and showed the weakest oil–solid bonding, while the Xinjiang OS (XJ-OS) displayed moderate oxidation and intermediate properties. A novel room-temperature high-speed stirring cleaning method was applied to evaluate oil removal performance under ambient conditions. The residual oil contents after treatment were 4.43% (PJ-OS), 1.65% (DQ-OS), and 1.22% (XJ-OS), corresponding to removal efficiencies of 80.86%, 86.74%, and 90.33%, respectively. The cleaning efficiency was strongly governed by the sludge composition and oxidation state: higher O/C ratios and enrichment of polar heavy fractions enhanced oil–solid adhesion and hindered oil detachment, whereas higher saturate contents and lower oxidation degrees facilitated rapid oil separation. Overall, the findings demonstrate that the treatability of oily sludge is controlled by its intrinsic physicochemical properties. The proposed high-speed stirring technique provides a promising, energy-efficient, and environmentally sustainable approach for oily sludge remediation and resource recovery, offering valuable insights for optimizing treatment parameters and scaling up green petroleum waste management technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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19 pages, 6137 KB

Open AccessArticle

Combined Developmental Toxicity of Ecologically Relevant Concentrations of the PFOS Alternative F-53B and Hexavalent Chromium in Zebrafish, Danio rerio

by Qunjie Feng, Ximei Wu, Ming Chen, Hui Li, Wei Tong, Yanhong Gao, Wenli Li, Zenghua Qi, Chaoyang Long and Yingxin Yu

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060471 - 27 May 2026

Abstract

6:2 Chlorinated polyfluoroether sulfonate (F-53B), an emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance used as a perfluorooctane sulfonate substitute in electroplating, may co-occur with Cr(VI) in industrially affected aquatic environments. However, their combined developmental toxicity in vertebrates remains poorly understood. This study compared the effects [...] Read more.

6:2 Chlorinated polyfluoroether sulfonate (F-53B), an emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance used as a perfluorooctane sulfonate substitute in electroplating, may co-occur with Cr(VI) in industrially affected aquatic environments. However, their combined developmental toxicity in vertebrates remains poorly understood. This study compared the effects of F-53B and Cr(VI) alone and in combination on zebrafish embryos and larvae exposed from 0 to 120 hpf at environmentally relevant concentrations (10 and 100 μg/L). Developmental toxicity, ocular morphology, retinal histology, locomotor behavior, and ocular-development-related gene expression were assessed. Single Cr(VI) exposure produced prominent effects on hatching, locomotor activity, retinal-layer thickness, and selected transcriptional responses related to retinoic acid signaling and ocular development. F-53B alone caused developmental and ocular alterations but generally produced weaker or more selective responses than Cr(VI). Co-exposure did not uniformly intensify the toxicity of either compound. Instead, the mixture enhanced some endpoints, including malformation, heart rate, and specific ocular or retinal alterations while showing weaker or divergent responses for other endpoints, such as locomotor activity and selected transcriptional markers. These findings indicate that F-53B/Cr(VI) co-exposure produces endpoint-dependent toxicity rather than a consistent synergistic pattern. Overall, the study highlights the importance of comparing single and combined exposures across multiple biological endpoints when assessing the developmental risks of co-occurring contaminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developmental Toxicity Mechanism of Emerging Contaminants (ECs))

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15 pages, 3414 KB

Open AccessArticle

Early-Life Rotenone Exposure Enhances Nigrostriatal Vulnerability and Parkinsonian Neurodegeneration in Aging Rats

by Margarita Gómez-Chavarín, Rocio Morales-Gómez, Juan Ramón Padilla-Mendoza, Patricia Padilla, Ismael Torres-Saldaña, Patricia Vergara-Aragón, Maria-del-Carmen Silva-Lucero and Nuria Galindo-Solano

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060470 - 27 May 2026

Abstract

Environmental exposure to neurotoxicants during critical developmental windows may program long-term susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease. Here, we investigated whether rotenone exposure during neurodevelopment induces a more severe Parkinsonian phenotype during aging than adult-onset exposure. Wistar rats were exposed to [...] Read more.

Environmental exposure to neurotoxicants during critical developmental windows may program long-term susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease. Here, we investigated whether rotenone exposure during neurodevelopment induces a more severe Parkinsonian phenotype during aging than adult-onset exposure. Wistar rats were exposed to rotenone (1 mg/kg/day) either during gestation and lactation or from postnatal day 60 to 102. Motor performance was assessed longitudinally, and neurobiological analyses were conducted at 12 months of age. Developmental rotenone exposure induced persistent and severe motor deficits from early adulthood, whereas adult exposure resulted in a progressive phenotype. These alterations were accompanied by greater loss of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive dopaminergic neurons and a marked reduction in Nurr1 expression in the substantia nigra. Developmental exposure also increased cellular senescence, dendritic atrophy and spine loss in striatal medium spiny neurons, insoluble α-synuclein accumulation, and global DNA hypomethylation. Despite low residual serum rotenone levels, neurodegenerative alterations persisted, supporting a hit-and-run mechanism. These findings suggest that early-life rotenone exposure induces long-lasting epigenetic and cellular reprogramming that enhances nigrostriatal vulnerability and accelerates Parkinsonian neurodegeneration during aging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurotoxicity from Exposure to Environmental Pollutants)

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17 pages, 8872 KB

Open AccessArticle

Copper and PFOS Co-Exposure Induces Synergistic Neurotoxicity via ROS-Mediated Mitophagy in C. elegans

by Peixin Lu, Ying Zhang, Ruo Zhang, Kejia Liu, Wei Shi, Lu Lu, Qian Zhou, Yuepu Pu and Lihong Yin

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060469 - 27 May 2026

Abstract

Copper (Cu) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants that frequently co-occur, each capable of inducing neurotoxicity individually. However, the combined toxicity and interactive mechanisms of their co-exposure remain unclear, hindering an accurate assessment of their combined environmental health risks. Using the [...] Read more.

Copper (Cu) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants that frequently co-occur, each capable of inducing neurotoxicity individually. However, the combined toxicity and interactive mechanisms of their co-exposure remain unclear, hindering an accurate assessment of their combined environmental health risks. Using the Caenorhabditis elegans model, we investigated the effects of co-exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations. Compared to individual exposures, co-exposure triggered synergistic neurotoxicity, characterized by the loss of dopaminergic (DAergic) and glutamatergic (GLUergic) neurons, aggravated locomotor deficits, massive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and a severe decline in mitochondrial membrane potential, accompanied by substantial mitochondrial ultrastructural damage and accumulation of autophagosomes. Mechanistically, the excessive oxidative stress induced by co-exposure aberrantly and persistently activated the ROS-mediated mitophagy pathway, thereby impairing mitochondrial quality control. Critically, intervention with N-acetylcysteine (NAC), an antioxidant, effectively mitigated the co-exposure-induced deficits, identifying oxidative stress as the central driver of the synergistic toxicity. Our findings reveal a novel mechanism by which Cu and PFOS exert synergistic neurotoxicity via the oxidative-stress–mitophagy axis, providing key scientific evidence for refining the assessment of their combined environmental pollution risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Mechanisms of Exposure to Metals and Metalloids)

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21 pages, 4751 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Toxicity of Tire Wear Particles and Their Leachates on Digestion and Gut Microbiota of Mytilus coruscus

by Yu Zhou, Qikun Yang, Lukuo Ma, Xuanjie Zhou, Shixiu Wang and Wei Huang

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060468 - 27 May 2026

Abstract

Tire Wear Particles (TWPs) are a major type of microplastics (MPs). However, previous studies have predominantly focused on TWP leachates rather than the particles, and their toxic effects on marine organisms remain limited. In this study, the mussels were exposed to TWPs and [...] Read more.

Tire Wear Particles (TWPs) are a major type of microplastics (MPs). However, previous studies have predominantly focused on TWP leachates rather than the particles, and their toxic effects on marine organisms remain limited. In this study, the mussels were exposed to TWPs and their leachates for 21 days, followed by a 7-day recovery period in clean conditions. The results showed that the leachates contained organic pollutants (predominantly PAHs) and metal ions (predominantly Zn²⁺). Growth inhibition was observed in exposure to TWPs, while leachate exposure showed no significant effect. As for the antioxidant system, high-concentration TWP and their leachate exposures provoked significant oxidative stress, accompanied by inhibited superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity as well as increased glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Exposure to high concentrations of TWPs significantly inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and trypsin (TRS) activities. Gut microbiota analysis indicated that exposure to TWPs and their leachates modified community structure with significantly reduced relative abundance of Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, potentially attributed to the bacteriostatic activity of released Zn²⁺. Integrated Biomarker Response (IBR) analysis indicated that TWPs elicited stronger integrated toxicity compared to their leachates. This study provides a comparative perspective on the ecological toxicology of TWPs and their leachates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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13 pages, 2508 KB

Open AccessArticle

Elevated CO₂ Drives the Enrichment of Multidrug Resistance Genes in Paddy Soils

by Fen Xu, Qian Xiang, Guobing Wang, Xitian Peng, Youxiang Zhou and Hongyan Guo

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060467 - 26 May 2026

Abstract

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are becoming a global issue due to the emergence of superbugs. However, the impact of elevated CO₂ (eCO₂) on the soil antibiotic resistome remains largely unknown. Here, using a free-air CO₂ enrichment platform, we employed [...] Read more.

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are becoming a global issue due to the emergence of superbugs. However, the impact of elevated CO₂ (eCO₂) on the soil antibiotic resistome remains largely unknown. Here, using a free-air CO₂ enrichment platform, we employed high-throughput quantitative PCR and 16S rRNA gene sequencing to investigate the effect of eCO₂ (ambient + 200 ppm) on soil ARGs and bacterial communities in a paddy ecosystem at harvest. The results showed that eCO₂ had no significant effect on rice biomass. A LEfSe analysis identified a clear taxonomic shift, with taxa such as c_Clostridia, g_Dehalobacter and g_Syntrophus being significantly enriched under eCO₂. The total relative abundance of ARGs increased 1.5-fold under eCO₂, driven by a 2.8-fold increase in multidrug resistance genes. The correlation and network analyses revealed that the proliferation of specific potential host bacteria was the primary driver of the observed ARG enrichment under eCO₂. Together, this study offers new insights into the eCO₂-driven alterations of soil antibiotic resistomes, highlighting the elevated dissemination potential of multidrug resistance genes within paddy ecosystems and their potential implications for food safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Risks, Migration and Remediation of Legacy and Emerging Toxicants)

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